Research into resources available to the composer to produce microtonal music and to what effect this has on the critical reception, application and it’s positioning within western popular culture.
Mediation technology and 12 tone equal temperament in western popular music
Western music has adhered to the conventions of twelve tone equal temperament (12 TET), influenced by the work of Mersenne's 'Harmonie Universelle' in 1637 and other mathematicians that pre-date him (Barbour, 2004, pg. 7). Since instruments have been designed and constructed to adopt Mersenne’s division of the octave by a factor of 12 which closest mimics our previous 5-limit Just Intonation harmony, western musical culture has developed harmonically around this tuning temperament allowing for even transposition between tonal centres and regulated tuning between instruments (Helmholtz, 1954, pg. 327). By analysing data collected via Spotify (Ning, Humphrey & Buskirk, 2017, online) which examines tonal centres of popular music genres with regards to 12 TET, we can observe that idiomatic writing of instrumental parts informs the compositional process of many musical genres. As an example, it is observable that all guitar based music has a preference for keys C, G, D, A and E for their easy mechanical operation.
This leads us to contemplate what could be considered idiomatic microtonal writing and are there common similarities between works that can be observed? It is evidenced in this paper that there are artists working in the popular music model that are exploring Xenharmonic music theory in their works, expanding the function of popular stylistic form. “For music producers, the process of making microtonal music is still not a trivial task. They first have to consider how they will access those microtones. This will depend on the musicians and the style of music to be played. For example a rock musician will most likely want to get guitars made with bespoke fretboard patterns, whereas an electronic musician will need to buy a synth that has the capability of being re-tuned. This requires some initiative from the musician to figure out their own path and learn along the way” (Mehew, 2018, online). One explanation as to why artists could be looking towards tuning as means of inspiration could be that when “ a style attracts a growing number of artists, its instrumentational variety usually increases. At the same time the instrumentational uniformity of a style decreases, i.e. a unique stylistic and increasingly complex expression pattern emerges. In contrast, album sales of a given style typically increase with decreasing instrumentational complexity. This can be interpreted as music becoming increasingly formulaic in terms of instrumentation once commercial or mainstream success sets in” (Percino, Klimek & Thurner, 2014, online).
Non-conventionally tuned music struggles to integrate into a western popular cultural model which "re-states, in an intense form, values and attitudes already known; which measures and re-affirms" (Storey, 1993, pg. 63). Statistics from IFPI suggest that digital streaming services now account for 50% of global music revenue with "record companies driving this digital evolution” (IFPI, 2017, online, pg. 10). It is no surprise that music derived from other tuning systems can seems esoteric to the popular music consumer because of a lack of familiar mediated music in the popular domain that utilises alternative tuning systems. Despite popular consensus that our brain best interprets intervallic harmony constructed from small rational numbers, a study by Meyer (1903, pp. 207-214) concluded that an audiences positive aesthetic appraisal of 24 TET music increases after successive exposure to the source material. The phenomenon observed is a physiological memory function known as ‘the mere exposure effect’ (Peretz, Gaudreau & Bonnel, 1997) and demonstrates that our appraisal of harmony is not solely based on a physiological ambiguous response of our outer arch fibres in the cochlea (Helmholtz, 1954, pg. 330) but also a social conservative propensity towards familiarity enforced by mediation industries. Sean Archibald (The electronic microtonal composer Sevish) believes “if the general public had more exposure to microtonal music then fewer of them would react negatively to it. There is a tendency for people to perceive microtonal music as ‘out of tune’. This perception is because they are comparing the new sounds of microtonal music to the familiar sounds of the 12-TET scale that they’ve been exposed to for their entire lives” (Mehew, 2018, online).
Using musical style as an agent for exploring microtonal concepts
Although the discussion above concerns microtonal music's ineptitude regarding integration into a western popular culture industry, King Gizzard and the Lizard Wizard's album 'Flying Microtonal Banana' received critical success in 2017, achieving position #10 on the Billboard's Independent Albums category (Billboard, 2017). “Musicians outside of popular culture are free to cater to their own specific audiences, some of whom will be keen to hear more microtonality” (Mehew, 2018, online). This supports the argument presented that microtonal music has the ability to captivate an audience, despite under-representation from the more traditional models of cultural mediation. To understand why an audience might find this album accessible, a closer examination of the 'Microtonal Flying Banana's (referring to the yellow guitar specifically made to compose the album's material and not the album itself) fretting system and research presents some interesting findings.
Through direct interviews and documentaries with King Gizzard and the Lizard Wizard, it is stated that the album was written on a bağlama (a Turkish fretted chordophone) before being adapted to microtonal guitars in which they based their fret system on (Flightless, 2017, online). The adaptation involves the addition of 5 extra frets placed onto the neck of a 12 TET tempered guitar to achieve quarter tone intervals of 50 cents where desired. In this respect, the Microtonal Flying Banana embodies two tuning systems, 12 TET with additions of intervals taken from a 24 TET.
The software Scala gives us the ability to easily study and compare tuning files which makes for a powerful tool in the microtonal composers’ arsenal. After analysing the presented data we have two findings. The adapted 24 TET system we see implemented by King Gizzard and the Lizard Wizard best fits the bağlama scale with the largest difference in comparison only being 7 cents. It is also interesting to see that the bağlama fret system closely resembles the Just Intonation scale with intervals such as 2/1, 3/2, 4/3, 9/8 and 12/11. This is no surprise however considering that the Harmonic Series is justified universally by physics (Johnston, 2002, pg. 98) and the mathematical studies regarding the relationships of integers made apparent by Pythagoras were also available to Anatolian philosophers (Yarman, 2007) (Naumann, 1886, pg. 38) . This tuning system allows King Gizzard and the Lizard Wizard to engage in two practises, one being traditional rock harmony in 12 TET and adapted Makam scales of Turkish tradition.
Rock music has a history of exploration regarding traditional Eastern musical aesthetics and has allowed the composer to explore new harmonic horizons within the genre. Whilst an appreciation of Turkish musical culture may have inspired King Gizzard and the Lizard Wizard to create ‘Flying Microtonal Banana’, it inadvertently presents Turkish makam concepts in an un-authentic fashion, creating philosophical and socio-political ramifications. There is an issue currently between Turkish instrument makers, music practitioners and music academics in respect to their tuning systems and culture. It has been documented that bağlama players have been tuning their instruments and fret positions to western 12-TET electronic tuners. This is due to the fact that 12-TET has become the standard tuning system of western culture and tempering the Turkish bağlama scale to an adapted 24-TET system allows them to engage in western music practises (Özt ürk, N.D, pp. 12-14) . “Mass production of musical instruments, mass printing of music books and mass teaching of curricula have allowed one tuning system to become the de facto standard. 12-TET does have some merits, such as the compact scale size, fair approximations of 3 and 5 limit just intervals, and a large repertoire of music already written. That being said, the traditional tuning systems of other cultures also have merits and they too can produce beautiful and worthwhile music. I suspect the spread of 12-TET to non-western cultures (much to the detriment of their traditional tuning systems) has something to do with Western imperialism and now cultural globalisation” (Mehew, 2018, online). These sources seem to suggest we are seeing the westernisation of Turkish art as a by-product of cultural globalism as the world is subjected to the western media influence of the recording industry (Kraidy, 2002, online). "Musical Orientalism has never been overly concerned with establishing distinctions between Eastern cultures, and that an interchangeability of exotic signifiers proved to be commonplace" (Scott, 1997, online). This is one of many examples of how the 12-TET tuning system has permeated into other culture. In an effort of conservative precaution, the Indian government radio station All-India Radio (AIR) prohibited the broadcasting of Carnatic music incorporating the Harmonium instrument from 1940-1971 as a means of establishing the national sound of India removed from the putative sensibilities apparent in western tuning systems (Rahaim, 2011, online). What concerns the ethnomusicologist or academic may not directly concern the music practitioner. Ravi Shankar states in an interview with the Rolling Stone magazine with regards to non-traditional music performed on the sitar “the question of ‘approving’ doesn't come, as I said earlier, I don't care one way or the other, but I have never heard any music, non-Indian music, played on sitar that has impressed me, let's put it. To be good enough, you know. I am not so orthodox or small minded – if something is done beautifully I will certainly appreciate it” (Clark, 1968, online).
Extended Vocal techniques using JI tuning in popular music
Since the discovery of difference tones, artists have been utilising this extended technique which manipulates the sum difference of intervallic relationships of the harmonic series to achieve physiological ghost tones. Whilst there is speculation as to who first discovered this physiological phenomenon, (Jones, 1935, pg. 49) Giuseppe Tartini bears the name of this acoustic phenomenon. The principal can be described as so; when f1 + f2 are played together as an intervallic relationship, the sum difference can be experienced as a third tone, an auditory pitch illusion perceived by our non-linear ear structure (Helmholtz, 1954, pp. 153-154). Bobby Mcferrin can be heard using this technique in a live version of his track 'drive' (Marler, 2011, online) between 01:56-02:12, in which he uses multi-phonics to pitch a 3:2 (perfect 5th) interval and the listener experiences a third note one octave below the fundamental pitch. He also uses a 4:5 (major 3rd) which produces a Tartini tone two octaves below the fundamental pitch. For this phenomenon to be observed, the interval sung needs to be a perfect one, relating to the Harmonic series. Another explanation for this phenomenon could be that our neurons in our brain are physiologically experiencing the two tones as overtone harmonics in relation to the much lower fundamental Tartini tone (Zatorre, 2005, online).
Alternatively, there are other vocal techniques in which you can exploit the harmonic series of the voice. Snarky Puppy's track 'Something' ft. Lalah Hathaway (Youtube, 2013, online) achieved viral exposure on the internet for her multi-phonic chords heard at 06:12-06:30 which were achieved differently in comparison to the lip buzz in which Mcferrin uses. "I've asked people on Facebook and Twitter how they [think I] do this vocally, and [haven't] gotten one taker. I've studied the Tuvan throat singers, the Bulgarian Women's Choir and Tibetan monks — these mystical, magical people who are doing some sort of weird harmonics with their vocals" (Hathaway, 2017, online). It makes sense that an audience would be astounded by the concept of singing multi-phonically in this way, considering this vocal technique has been adapted from an eastern musical tradition which engages with a microtonal practise which does not feature in the western canon of musical tradition. Despite there being an abundance of scientific work that discusses the overtone series related to a vibrating column of air which explains this phenomenon, in practise, the theory is not necessary to engage in the practise of singing and may be one of the contributory factors as to why more musicians were amazed by Hathaway's performance.
Jacob Collier also utilises microtonal compositional devices in his work 'In the Bleak Midwinter'. In a workshop he delivered to the students at Stavanger Katedralskole, Collier explains how he utilises the Pythagorean comma to lift his composition by half a semitone in the middle of the work to G half sharp before returning to G at the final cadence (Lage Thune Myrberget, online). Whilst Colliers' approach to vocal harmony has many similarities to the traditions of barbershop vocal theory, there is an important distinction which should be addressed. Whilst barbershop harmony adheres to the Just Intonation scale vertically to achieve stillness and mathematical purity between the harmonies, the melody line typically adheres to 12 TET horizontally. This helps to regulate and temper out the Pythagorean comma drift which in barbershop practise is undesirable (Biffle & Clark, 2017, pg. 95) (Helmholtz, 1954, pg. 327). Collier deliberately voice leads in the melody micro-tonally to achieve a harmonic sharpness of 23 cents.
It is evident that the human voice has an adaptability to execute microtonal techniques unlike other popular instruments we use to create music today. Partch discusses his Monophonic concepts used in his compositions (Partch, 1974, pp. 86-94) and it is easy to understand why he favoured writing for vocals with regards to his 'corporeal' aesthetic. The voice as an instrument has the ability to pitch tones discreetly between the intervals of 2:1 (octave) unlike fretted or fixed pitch instruments. Partch believed that our tonal language has suffered at the expense of the human voice adhering to abstracted pitch systems in which he classified as 'abstract' music. This position further supports the notion that our propensity towards functional harmony is a product of societal traditions and an innate conservatism in our musical expectations.
The use of computer software and electronics as instruments for realising microtonal composition
Meikle argues that the “human-computer interaction in music has been aided and influenced by both experimental/academic electro-acoustic art music and popular electronic music” (2016, pp. 224-241). Artists who established the traditions of ‘ musique concrète’ such as Schaefer and Henry used technology to create the ‘sound object’ and the tools used to do so have now become common features of many Digital Audio Workstations and virtual instruments. Sevish discusses how “electronic music has become the folk music of the day - many of today’s musicians got started by pirating FL Studios and posting their beats on Soundcloud” (Mehew, 2018, online). This enforces Meikle’s hypothesis and demonstrates the importance of technology and the internet in the production process and mediation of electronic musical aesthetics.
It is interesting to observe some of the tools and technology used to explore microtonal techniques in music today and how we interact with them. Art installations such as Tristan Perich’s ‘Microtonal Wall’ (Youtube, 2012, online) use technology to create an interactive art piece in which the audience can experience the chroma of a microtonal scale by walking along it on the x axis. Other artists like Jerobeam Fenderson create music using the harmonic series and phase difference as a means of creating visual art (Youtube, 2013, online). The music is secondary to the visual manifestations on the x-y vectorgraph. This practise is a development on the Harmonic practises of Lissajous and his figures (Ashton, 2003), and the complex harmonic shapes in which Jerobeam Fenderson creates with sine wave synthesis would be difficult to achieve without Max MSP in which he designs systems to create these images.
Another important development to come from this movement is the development of acousmatic music as the primary means of experiencing a body of work. Their is a preferentialism towards acousmatic composition in this field because of the complex nature of sound sources and tuning theory which make electronic music difficult to perform without the aid of samplers. Sevish states “the majority of the general public will never be interested in the technical details of music, for example which microtunings, which gear or which technical processes were applied. These details are only of concern to musicians and music fanatics” (Mehew, 2018, online). The fact that microtonal music is not explored via musical instruments in western music makes the theory difficult to teach. Dolores Catherino writes “Imitation is the basis of apprenticeship and, in and of itself, is the most efficient way to gain technical skill and stylistic mastery. However, pedagogical limitations become entrenched in an educational system which does not encourage and facilitate the creative process as an essential element of artistic development and innovation” (2010, online). Sevish also acknowledges there is a problem with the accessibility of microtonal technique despite an abundance free software and educational resources available online. “ To me, making microtonal art doesn’t feel “democratised” until microtonal variants of instruments are readily available and students have more exposure to it at school. However free software and research regarding tuning theory on the internet has helped to improve things by raising awareness and by giving budding microtonalists the tools to experiment with” (Mehew, 2018, online). Dolores is currently working to explore ways to academise her ‘Poly-chromatic’ approach to music harmony with instruments such as Aaron Hunt’s Tonal Plexus keyboard design (Hunt, 2018, online)
Partch, a composer who spent his entire life developing musical systems and instruments to explore new sonorities outside of popular convention states "the missing element which the human ear wants and needs most is a musical instrument capable of expressing an infinite range of ideas and of infinite mutability, so that ideas can first be tested, then proved or corrected" (Partch, 1974, pg. 95). Whilst we will never know if Partch himself would have used computers to realise his work had they been available, it is evident that the computer embodies the adaptability to explore microtonal concepts. On discussing the impact of computer technology within Sevish’s work, he writes “the impact of these tools on my work has been profound. Scala and microtonal soft-synths have enabled me to make my music possible. Without these tools, I would be limited to using the same old commercially-developed synths that assume all users want to compose in a tonal framework of only 12 notes” (Mehew, 2018, online). Aphex twin also utilises Scala in his compositional process, discussing how he models his synthesiser tunings digitally in order to replicate various synthesisers he owns. One problem with Scala which Aphex Twin details in his interview with Tatsuya Takahashi is its’ ineptitude to create tuning files based on arbitrary pitches as opposed to formulas (James, 2017, online). Whilst expressing discreet pitches can be incredibly difficult with large whole number ratios, Scala does allow the user to input frequencies (Hz) instead of ratio values. if you had a tuner, you could reference your unknown pitch frequencies with this technology and input your findings into Scala that way. Perhaps Scala could improve their product by incorporating a Fourier transform function in their software which analyses the frequencies and time duration of a signal and works out it’s fundamental (Lenssen & Needell, 2013, online). Another issue with scala is that there are not that many musical instrument manufacturers that allow for importing .tun files which Scala makes into hardware synths. Until this becomes standardised and integrated into most consumer technologies, production will continue to remain predominantly in the digital domain of computer soft-synths.
Conclusion
It is evidenced in this paper that a demand for microtonal technology has led to the development of scale generating software available to the public via the internet. This in turn has allowed music producers to engage in the theories of tuning procedure and the process of creating microtonal music via virtual instrument synthesis. Microtonal music has favoured acousmatic dissemination over live performance since the advent of computers and this in part is due to the technical difficulty of building instruments that can easily perform the specific scales of microtonal music and the geographic distance between audience members. Access to Scala and peer reviewed sources has led to the creation of a culture of microtonal enthusiasts and composers that mediate microtonal music far more effectively digitally than via the social concert tradition or Popular Music Industry in which it does not integrate. It is argued that microtonal music’s under-representation in popular music culture is a systematic feature of the music industry which provides for popular taste due to the familiarity principle.
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Discography
King Gizzard and the Lizard Wizard (2017) Flying Microtonal Banana . [12" L.P.] Heavenly Recordings.
